Design and plan learning activities and/or programmes of study
Appropriate methods for teaching, learning and assessing in the subject area in the subject area and at the level of the academic programme
Simulations give students a chance to practise real-world tasks in safe, controlled environments — like diagnosing patients, managing a classroom, or leading a team. Simulations can be digital (e.g., VR, screen-based tools) or live (e.g., role-plays). They help learners build complex skills like decision-making, teamwork, and communication. In higher ed, simulations are especially helpful when real-life practice is risky, rare, or hard to access. They’re most powerful when paired with tools like scaffolding or feedback.
Simulations significantly improve learning outcomes across higher education ➕➕➕➕➕ (Chernikova et al., 2020). They’re most effective for skill development (g = 1.14–1.20) and knowledge acquisition (g = 1.20) ➕➕➕➕➕ (Cook et al., 2011). These effects extend across fields like medicine, education, and management ➕➕➕➕.
Overall, the best results come when simulation is combined with instructional support that matches students’ needs.
This summary is based on three high-quality meta-analyses. Cook et al. (2011) reviewed 609 studies with over 35,000 learners, finding strong effects of simulation across skills and knowledge. Chernikova et al. (2020) included 145 studies and identified scaffolding and prior knowledge as key moderators. The updated Chernikova et al. (2025) meta-analysis examined 217 studies and explored how adaptivity and adaptability shape simulation outcomes. Together, these papers provide robust, reliable, and up-to-date insights into the power of simulation in higher education.
Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499–541. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320933544
Chernikova, O., Sommerhoff, D., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Nickl, M., Seidel, T., Kasneci, E., Küchemann, S., Kuhn, J., Fischer, F., & Heitzmann, N. (2025). Personalization through adaptivity or adaptability? A meta-analysis on simulation-based learning in higher education. Educational Research Review, 46, 100662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100662
Cook, D. A., Hatala, R., Brydges, R., Zendejas, B., Szostek, J. H., Wang, A. T., Erwin, P. J., & Hamstra, S. J. (2011). Technology-enhanced simulation for health professions education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 306(9), 978–988. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1234
